Chapter 5: Stress Systems

 

5.0 Introduction

StressTyp is based on a theoretical perspective that competes with other metrical theories. Its starting point is the separation of main stress and rhythm. The separation of information about metrical structure and rhythmical structure is not commonly assumed. We claim, however, that it is possible to interpret the information without making a commitment to this particular view. The parameters used in the database represent a view on stress, but they are fairly 'descriptive'. Proponents of other theories can take this information and analyze it in any way they see fit.

Of course, the way we approach stress systems raises questions about how the different types of stress systems, known from the theoretical literature, are stored. As a rule, we have taken existing analyses of systems from the literature and translated these into the format of the data base. Sometimes more, possibly conflicting, analyses exist. In some cases we have chosen how to incorporate such systems. In other cases StressTyp itself dictates how information must be handled because of its organization. We must also reckon with the fact that StressTyp itself contains ambiguities. Sometimes, there are different possible ways of storing properties of systems. In these cases too, we have made choices, guided by the principle of consistency. Most of the time, these choices are clarified and explicated in the record of a language, most likely in the record fields source quotation and/or remarks. Finally, several people have been working on StressTyp. It is unavoidable that different choices have been made by different people. Since choices are clarified somewhere in the record, we do not consider this a real problem.

In this chapter, we present an overview of how different types of stress systems known from the theoretical literature (for instance Prince 1983, Halle & Vergnaud 1987; Hayes 1995; Van der Hulst forthc.) are handled and stored in the database, to provide assistance to the user of StressTyp. The division in stress systems is made on the basis of the position of main stress in words, as usual in metrical theory, and uses existing terminology. The systems are illustrated with sample languages, stored in the database. References to theoretical and descriptive sources are omitted here, since they can be found in the language records.

The organization of this chapter is as follows. In section 5.1. unbounded systems are introduced:

-quantity-sensitive unbounded systems (cf. 5.1.1)

-quantity-insensitive unbounded systems (cf. 5.1.2)

In this section, the so-called count systems, in which the position of main stress depends on the counting of syllables in terms of feet are also discussed (cf. 5.1.3). Although they have binary feet, they are reanalysed as unbounded systems in StressTyp.

Section 5.2. discusses bounded systems with binary rhythm:

-quantity-insensitive bounded systems (cf. 5.2.1)

-quantity-sensitive bounded systems (cf. 5.2.2)

Other systems with more complicated properties than the ordinary ones, are discussed in section 5.3.:

-so-called 'broken-window' systems, in which main stress is shifted outside the two-syllable window of main stress under certain circumstances (cf. 5.3.1)

-systems which have n-ary weight distinctions (cf. 5.3.2)

The latter type of systems can be divided in several subtypes:

-systems that have a three-way contrast in weight, i.e. they have 'superheavy' syllables (cf. 5.3.2.1)

-systems that have more weight distinctions in the form of a weight-scale, or other properties than syllable quantity as such that contribute to weight; these systems are often referred to as prominence systems (cf. 5.3.2.2)

Finally, in section 5.4. bounded ternary systems are introduced.

It will be clear that it is impossible to clarify and motivate all the settings of parameters for all the languages represented in the database. This chapter is intended to provide some background to understand the line of reasoning in specific cases. Record fields from the database are underlined, and cross-references with chapter 4 are added to clarify their contents as much as possible.

5.1 Unbounded systems

 

In unbounded systems, the stress domain comprises the entire word. Also, in general, alternating rhythm (i.e. iambs or trochees) is absent. In StressTyp, quantity-insensitive unbounded systems (cf. Hayes 1981) are analyzed as quantity-insensitive bounded systems, i.e. unbounded systems are considered to be always quantity-sensitive.

  With respect to quantity-sensitive unbounded systems three record fields are relevant which specify the position of main stress: stress domain (Unbounded, Left or Right), stress heavy syllable (Left or Right in stress domain), stress if no heavy syllable (Left or Right in stress domain) (cf. chapter 4, section 4.3.2).

5.1.1 Quantity-sensitive unbounded systems

Quantity-sensitive unbounded systems are indicated by using the symbols Last and/or First and the connective /. The slash indicates that weight is involved. Before the slash the situation with heavy syllables in the stress domain is specified, after the slash the default case, i.e. only light syllables in the stress domain, is specified (cf. chapter 4, section 4.2.2.2). As an example, consider Goroa, in which main stress is on the first heavy syllable in the entire word, or, in absence of heavy syllables, on the last syllable. The parameter setting is as follows:^[1]

(1)        stress type:                            F/L                       

stress domain:                        U                       

stress heavy syllable:               L                

stress if no heavy syllable:        R         

In quantity-sensitive unbounded systems, more syllables can be stressed, but there is no regular alternation of stressed and unstressed syllables. Recall, that we have decided to separate main stress from non-primary stress, and to specify information on non-primary stress in record fields which have rhythm as their key-word. As a consequence of this decision, non-alternating non-primary stresses that can be found in unbounded systems are also headed under rhythm. To make clear that we are dealing with non-alternating, non-primary stresses the following specifications are added:

(2)        rhythm:                         Y

rhythm direction:            -

rhythm weight:               Y

rhythm type:                  -

Both rhythm direction (Left or Right) and rhythm type (iambic or trochaic) are not specified (indicated by a hyphen), expressing that non-primary-stresses are in fact non-alternating.

As an example, consider Seri which has the stress type  F/F (First/First). According to the descriptive source, an unstressed syllable cannot contain a complex nucleus. Therefore, all long vowels are stressed.

 

5.1.2 Quantity-insensitive unbounded systems

Quantity-insensitive systems that are sometimes called unbounded in the literature (for instance Hayes 1981) are systems in which main stress is located at one of the edges in the word and which have no secondary stresses. These systems are analyzed either as quantity-insensitive boun­ded systems or as quantity-sensitive unbounded systems in the database (cf. stress type, chapter 4, section 4.2). The choice depends in general on the behaviour of lexical exceptions.

If lexical exceptions are restricted to a small area, i.e. near an edge of the word, the system is considered to be bounded. For instance, in Polish, main stress is penultimate and occasionally antepenultimate, but never on other syllables in the word. The system is identified with P(enultimate);A(ntepenultimate) as its stress type. The use of the semicolon indicates that there is variation in the position of main stress, but that this variation is bounded to a specific position. The symbol before the semicolon identifies the dominant pattern; the symbol after the semicolon identifies the position of exceptions^[2].

  If lexical exceptions can be found anywhere in the word, the system is analyzed as unbounded, cf. Turkish. In general, main stress is final in Turkish. However, there is a subset of words, i.e. placenames and loans, known in the literature as Sezer-words, that have non-final marked stress. If these words are combined with affixes, main stress remains on the marked syllable, even when combined with so-called pre-accenting suffixes. The system is analyzed as unbounded and quantity-sensitive; it has F/L (First/Last) as its Stress type, i.e. stress the first heavy syllable (i.e. the diacritically marked syllable), otherwise the last syllable. In this way, Turkish is seen as the mirror-image of Chuvash, also a Ural-Altaic - Turkic language, which has L/F (Last/First) as its stress type.

 

5.1.3 Count systems

So-called count systems (cf. Van der Hulst 1992; forthc.) are reanalysed as unbounded systems in the database. In these systems, the position of main stress depends on a count of syllables in terms of feet, which generally leads to a difference in the position of main stress between odd-numbered words and even-numbered words. Their stress type contains Last or First and CNT (=Count) between parentheses. The interpretation of L and F is more or less comparable with their interpretation in regular unbounded systems (cf. chapter 4, section 4.2.2.2):

L (CNT): last foot of word carries main stress

F (CNT): first foot of word carries main stress

Count systems are systems in which rhythm precedes and determines the as­signment of main stress, i.e. they count syllables that are grouped into feet. In standard metrical theory, they can be analyzed through footing from left-to-right or from right-to-left, followed by an End Rule which promotes the foot at the end of the parse (cf. Prince 1983).

In the database, these systems are analyzed by specifying stress domain as unbounded. The parameter that specifies the position of main stress within this domain is sensitive to a specific type of weight, i.e. the heads of rhythmic feet are considered to be heavy with respect to main stress. What counts as heavy in a system is indicated in the record field heavy for stress (cf. chapter 4, sections 4.3.2 and 4.4). Thus, this record field cannot only specify certain syllable types, i.e. syllable-quantity, as heavy, but also other distinctions that contribute to weight, such as rhythmically strong positions.

Consider as an example MalakMalak. MalakMalak is in itself a quantity-insensitive language, i.e. weight differences of syllable types do not play any role. Main stress is found on the first or second syllable depending on the number of syllables of the word: in even-numbered words, main stress is on the first syllable, in odd-numbered words it is on the second syllable. The (head of the) first foot in the word carries main stress. This is captured by the following parameter settings:

 

(3)        MalakMalak

stress type:                             F (CNT)

stress domain:                        U

stress weight:                          Y

heavy for stress:                      rhythmically strong

stress heavy syllable:                L

stress if no heavy syllable:         -

 

rhythm direction:                      R

rhythm weight:                         N

rhythm type:                             tr

degenerate feet:                        N

stress heavy syllable is the only record field that expresses the position of main stress. Main stress can only be assigned on the basis of information provided by binary footing. Therefore, each word contains at least one rhythmically strong position, either on the first or on the second syllable, depending on the number of syllables in the word. This also implies that degenerate feet is set to No, since the left-over syllable in odd-numbered words does not receive main stress: incomplete feet are not allowed in MalakMalak (cf. chapter 4, section 4.3.4).

Of course, there are count systems in which other weight properties can play a role. These weight differences influence the positions of the head of feet, i.e. rhythm weight is specified as Yes and in heavy for rhythm, it is specified what counts as heavy in the assignment of rhythmical feet. Indirectly, these weight differences influence the eventual position of main stress.

Finally, notice that in count systems L means last foot in stress domain and F means first foot in stress domain. This is not the same as last or first assigned foot: in count systems it is always the last assigned foot which receives main stress.

 

5.2 Binary Bounded systems

 

5.2.1 Quantity-insensitive bounded systems

Recall that a subset of quantity-insensitive unbounded systems is reanalysed in the data base as bounded if main stress (including exceptional stress) is always located at one of the edges. (cf. Polish, see section 5.1.2.) 

The stress type of Quantity-Insensitive systems is simply one of the abbreviations for bounded systems from the list: Initial, Second, Third, Antepenultimate, Penultimate or Ultimate (cf. chapter 4, section 4.2.2.1). Three record fields provide the information that is needed to determine this code: stress domain (Left or Right in word), stress if no heavy syllable (trochaic or iambic in bounded stress domain containing two syllables) and stress extrametricality (No, Left or Right in word) (cf. chapter 4, section 4.3.2). As an illustration, consider Maranunggu, in which main stress is always found on the first syllable

(4)        Maranunggu                                     

stress type:                             I                                              

stress domain:                        L                     

stress extrametricality:            N                    

stress if no heavy:                   tr                     

The systems, identified with T and A, are complex, since the two syllable‑window, i.e. the stress domain, is shifted one syllable away from the edge because extrametricality interferes. This is specified in the record field stress extrametricality. 

In most bounded systems there is a regular alternation of stressed and unstressed syllables. In most cases, footing moves away from main stress, as for instance in Maranunggu:

(5)        Maranunggu                         

rhythm:                                  Y         

rhythm direction:                     L          

rhythm weight:                        N        

rhythm type:                           tr         

degenerate feet:                      Y        

The record field degenerate feet specifies only whether left-over syllables are incorporated into monosyllabic (or monomoraic) rhythmic feet or not. In Maranunggu, the left-over final syllable is incorporated in an incomplete, monosyllabic foot, resulting in a final non-primary stress, whereas in other systems, the left-over syllable remains unfooted and is unstressed.

As a consequence of our decision to separate main stress and rhythm, the setting of the record field degenerate feet is not connected with the occurrence of subminimal words. The occurrence of monosyllabic or monomoraic words is specified in the record field subminimal words (Yes or No). The settings of these two record fields are determined independently of each other (cf. chapter 4, section 4.3.4). Information about whether these monosyllabic words are stressed or not, can be found somewhere else in the entry, most likely in quotation or remarks. 

We have taken the position that the rhythm domain comprises the entire word, i.e. it includes the two-syllable stress domain. In most cases rhythmic feet will `echo' away from the primary stress. However, there are cases, in which clashes arise between main stress and the head of a rhythmic foot.

This is the case in Garawa, which is quantity-insensitive. Main stress is initial and trochaic rhythm starts at the opposite edge, i.e. rhythm moves towards main stress. However, at the surface, no adjacent stresses occur in words with an odd number of syllables. These words have instead an initial dactyl, as can be seen in náringinmùkunjìnamìra 'at your own many'. There are two ways of analyzing this pattern: (i) the assignment of a rhythmic foot is blocked if it would create a clash with an already strong syllable, or, (ii) a rhythmic foot is deleted under clash, i.e. the second syllable of *nárìnginmùkunjìnamìra is destressed. If this is the case, this is stated explicitly elsewhere in the record. The record field rhythm repair is specified as Y(es) and the record field repair explains what happens and under which conditions destressing occurs.

(6)        stress code:                I             rhythm:                         Y        

stress domain:             L            rhythm direction:            R

stress if no heavy:        tr            rhythm type:                   tr         

rhythm repair:                 Y

repair:

a rhythmic foot is deleted if a clash is created with main stress

5.2.2 Quantity-sensitive bounded systems

 

In predictable quantity-sensitive bounded systems, the stress domain is located at or nearby one of the two edges of a word and contains exactly two syllables. Four situations can occur:

(7)       a. [h h]

b. [l l]  

c. [h l]

d. [l h]

The stress type code (cf. chapter 4, section 4.2.2.2) specifies what happens in case (7a) and (7b). The symbol 'x' before the slash identifies the position of main stress when both syllables are heavy, i.e. (7a). The symbol 'y' after the slash identifies the position of main stress when both syllables are light, i.e. (7b). When the two syllables of the stress domain are unequal in weight, cf. cases (7c) and (7d), it is always the heavy syllable which bears main stress. This information is covered redundantly by stress type. Therefore, three record fields are relevant: stress domain (Left or Right), stress if heavy (Left or Right) and stress if no heavy (iambic=right or trochaic=left) (cf. chapter 4, section 4.3.2).

As an illustration of this type of system, consider Yapese. Its stress domain is contiguous with the right edge of the word: main stress is located on the last heavy syllable in the domain; if there are no heavy syllables, main stress is found on the last syllable:

(8)        a.       *      *      *     *
                    h h#   l l#   l h#    h l#

b.         stress type:                 U/U

stress domain:            R

stress if heavy:            R

stress if no heavy:       ia         

Its stress type is identified as U/U: since the domain is on the right side of the word, last heavy=ultimate, otherwise last=ultimate. It is important to emphasize that a system in which stress occurs superficially either on the penultimate syllable or on the ultimate syllable, as in Yapese, is not simply identified as P/U or U/P. The codes of stress type have a specific interpretation. P/U stands for "stress the first (=penul­timate) heavy syllable in domain, if there are no heavy syllables, stress the last syllable (=ultimate)". This code does not cover, however, the (hh) case in (8). On the other hand, U/P stands for "stress the last heavy (=ultimate) syllable in domain, if there are no heavy syllables, stress the first syllable (=penultimate)". This description predicts incorrectly penultimate stress in (ll). The only description that covers both sequences in the stress domain is the one we proposed, i.e. U/U: "stress last heavy (=ultimate) in domain, if not the last (=ultimate)".

More complex are systems in which extrametricality interferes. The two-syllable stress domain is shifted one syllable away from the edge. These systems are identified by the use of the symbols T and A in their code for a domain at the left and at the right side of the word respectively. The use of these symbols always points to stress extrametricality.

Of course, quantity-sensitive bounded systems can also have rhythm. All kinds of usual combinations occur, also cases in which the specifications for main stress and rhythm differ, i.e. footing starts at the opposite edge from the stress domain (see for an example of this contrast the preceding section in which Garawa, although quantity-insensitive, has an opposite specification for stress and rhythm). There are also cases in which the specification of weight differs. We will not illustrate these cases here, as their setting is rather straightforward, but let it be noted that these cases form strong support for the separation of main stress and rhythm, which is at the heart of the database.

 

5.3 Special systems

Recall that so-called count systems are reanalysed as unbounded in the database. There is a close relation between main stress and rhythm in those systems. The position of main stress is determined on the basis of the assignment of rhythm, leading to a difference in the position of mains tress between odd- and even-numbered words. See section 5.1.3.

Other systems that are more complex are discussed in this section. First of all, there are cases which we call 'broken-window' systems. In these systems, main stress is shifted outside the bounded two syllable-window, but the shift crucially depends on information within the window. Secondly, there are systems in which n-ary weight distinctions play a role, i.e. systems in which superheavy syllables occur and so-called prominence systems. Moreover, there are also systems in which other weight distinctions than syllable-quantity play a role.

 

5.3.1 Broken-window systems

 

'Broken-window' systems are quantity-sensitive systems that show a shift outside the two-syllable window of main stress under certain circumstances. If the two syllable domain contains one or two heavy syllables, main stress is found inside the two syllable domain. However, if the stress domain contains two light syllables main stress is shifted outside the window provided certain conditions are met. Basically, there are two situations. Shift of main stress is performed only to a heavy syllable (cf. (9a)), or shift is unrestricted, i.e. it always takes place (cf. (9b)):

(9)        a.         *        *       *    *<----
                        (h l)  (l h)  (h h)   h (l l)

b.         *        *      *     *<----
                       (h l)  (l h)  (h h)   σ (l l)

The syllable position to which main stress shifts is indicated in the stress type code and is preceded by the percentage mark. The position that %X occupies in the code provides partial information of the conditions under which this shift takes place (cf. chapter 4, section 4.2.2.2.5).

In these systems the record field stress repair is specified as Yes (cf. chapter 4, section 4.3.2). Information about the conditions under which repair takes place can be found in the record field repair (cf. chapter 4, section 4.5).

As an illustration, consider Maithili, which is a case of the more restricted type. Main stress is on the penultimate syllable if heavy. If there are two light syllables, there is a shift outside the window, but only if the antepenultimate syllable is heavy, i.e. contains a long vowel. Its stress type is indicated by P %A/P. That is, stress is on the first heavy syllable in the domain (=penultimate position); if there are two light syllables, there is a shift to antepenul­timate position just in case this antepenultimate syllable is heavy, cf. gá:bhinc 'pregnant'; otherwise, main stress is penultimate, cf. bindúlc 'a fabulous horse'.. The relevant parameter settings are: 

(10)     Maithili  

stress type:                             P %A/P

stress domain:                        R

stress if both heavy:                L

stress if no heavy:                   tr

stress repair:                           Y

repair:

shift outside the stress domain is carried out only if the antepenultimate position is heavy

The information after the percentage mark indicates the default case(s), i.e. what happens if the two syllables are light. If there is only one symbol, this implies that shift takes place without restrictions on the syllable where main stress is moved to. For instance, if we have a system with stress type U%A, main stress is on the last heavy syllable in the stress domain; if there are no heavy syllables main stress is moved to the antepenultimate syllable irrespective of the contents of that syllable (cf. Hindi). Maithili is an example of a case where two symbols (and a connective) follow the %. Thus an embedded quantity-sensitive level is introduced that says "shift if heavy, default if light".

 

5.3.2. n-ary weight distinctions

In many languages weight distinctions are not binary, but n-ary, i.e. there is not a simple contrast between light and heavy. Sometimes other distinctions than syllable quantity can influence the position of main stress. These latter systems are often referred to as prominence systems. In this section we will give an impression of how these systems are analyzed in the data base.

5.3.2.1. superheavy syllables

Many languages distinguish superheavy syllables next to heavy syllables and light syllables. For instance, in Beirut Arabic, we have a three-way contrast between superheavy syllables (CV:C, CVCC), heavy syllables (CV:, CVC) and light ones (CV). Superheavy final syllables carry stress, a light penult allows stress to fall on the antepe­nultimate syllable. Otherwise stress is on the penult.

The analysis of main stress itself is unproblematic. The antepenultimate syllable can be reached with the help of syllable extrametricali­ty. Superheavy syllables however cannot be totally invisible. We assume that superheavy syllables are equivalent to a heavy + light sequence. In that case, the light part can be considered to be extrametrical and the heavy part is considered to be penultimate and can be stressed according to the regular rule. The system can be described as follows:

(11)      Beirut Arabic

stress domain:                        R

stress extrametr.:                    Y

stress ex unit:                          syllable

stress if heavy :                       R

stress if no heavy :                   tr

To make clear that there is something special in these systems, we have decided to identify the exceptionality in the stress type code, although the analysis is straightforward. All cases, including the cases with superheavy syllables, can be described with P/A: stress is penultimate if heavy (h h) otherwise antepenultimate (l l) under the assumption that superheavy syllables really consist of two parts, i.e. a sequence of heavy-light. The only reason for specifying the superheavy syllables separately, is to be able to make retrieval of such systems in searching jobs (see especially chapter 6) easier. They stand out as special. The special case (i.e. superheavy syllables) is indicated in front of the stress type code, followed by a hyphen. For Beirut Arabic this is: U-P/A.

 

5.3.2.2. Prominence systems

In some systems, weight must often be interpreted in a broader sense than syllable quantity alone. There are also systems that have a multiple weight hierarchy (in terms of syllable quantity or other distinctions) and which have a stress rule that searches for the heaviest syllable present in the stress domain. These systems are often referred to as prominence systems (cf. Hayes 1995). Let us consider one example of each type.

Golin is an example in which weight differences are not determined by syllable-quantity, but by the presence or absence of high tones. It is an unbounded system which can be identified by stress type: L/L. That is, in a word the last syllable carrying high tone receives main stress; if there is no such syllable, main stress is on the last syllable. The information on what counts as heavy in a system, can be found in the record field heavy for stress (cf. chapter 4, section 4.4).

In Pirahã, a five points weight scale determines the position of main stress: the presence or absence of the syllable onset contributes to weight, and also voicing of the onset causes weight differences. It has one more special property, namely that stress is found in a three-syllable window, which cannot be determined with the help of extrametricality. The stress rule can be formulated as: stress falls on the heaviest syllable within a three syllable window at the right edge of the word, where heaviest is determined on the basis of a five points scale (cf. Hayes 1995: 285):

(12) KVV > GVV > VV > KV > GV where K is [-voice], G is [+voice]

If all syllables are equal in weight, the rightmost syllable catches main stress. In fact, the system reminds us of the case of Beirut Arabic, discussed in the preceding section. In Beirut Arabic, main stress is always located within a two-syllable domain which comprises the antepenultimate and penultimate position, except when the syllable at the right edge of the domain is superheavy. In Pirahã, we see the opposite: stress is located within a two-syllable window contiguous with the right edge of the word, except if the syllable at the left edge of the domain is 'superheavy', i.e. heavier than the two syllables within the domain. The status of the syllables involved is determined by comparing them through their position on the scale.

In the database, this type of system is analyzed as follows. The situation within the two syllable window is described first: this can be seen as an ordinary U/U-type: stress is ultimate if heavy (hh) and ultimate as default when (l l). The syllables within the domain are identified as heavy or light by comparing them through their position on the scale. The only situation which is not captured is when the antepenulti­mate is heavier than the syllables in the stress domain, i.e. this syllable is superheavy with respect to these syllables. Therefore, the stress type of Pirahã is specified as: A-U/U. If the antepenultimate is superheavy, i.e. heavier than the two syllables in the stress domain, it is stressed; if this is not the case, then main stress is ultimate if it is heavy, otherwise, ultimate. Summarizing the setting of parameters:

(13)      Pirahã

stress type:                 A-U/U

stress domain:             R

stress if both heavy:     R

stress if no heavy:        ia

stress repair:               Y

stress weight:              Y

heavy for stress :         scale (cf. (12))